The role of Hospitality and Tourism Industry- Myassignmenthelp.ComMana

Question: Talk about The job of Hospitality and Tourism Industry. Answer: Portrayal of the issues Cordiality and the travel industry is one of the popular businesses now a days and it serves traveler in an appropriate way. It is significant for the business to mull over the conduct of clients about advertising of items and administrations identified with tourism.The rivalry level in this industry is expanding step by step. Change in the interest of the clients is one of the current issues in this industry. Most recent innovation has changed the way of life and conduct of the purchasers. Client dependability is critical to upgrade the development in the market and it depends on the fulfillment level of the clients. Fulfillment of the clients is a significant angle as the general development and upper hand can be achieved viably. Web is turning out to be as a significant part for the association and for customers. There are numerous choices that are accessible for the purchasers for looking and choosing the inns according to the requirements and needs. Customer can without much of a stretch access rates and the area of the lodgings effectively by settling down anyplace on the planet (Fraj, Matute and Melero, 2015). It is one reason that the interest of the clients in the inn and the travel industry continue changing on a persistent premise. At the hour of choosing the lodging the Customers gives accentuation on eco-accommodating condition to remain. Customers require quick administrations from the inn and in the event that the lodgings don't give appropriate accentuation on the workforce, at that point it can make trouble to make due in the serious condition. It will expand the poor fulfillment level of the clients towards lodging and the travel industry. On the off chance that the clients give negative audits for the administrations, at that point it tends to be hard to accomplish great picture in the market (Altinay, Paraskevas and Jang, 2015). Fundamentally investigate the centrality of the issue It is significant for the inn and the travel industry to build the fulfillment level of the clients for improving the development. Fulfillment level of the client is significant marker for the accommodation business as it is connected with acceptable relations between the clients and specialist organization. There is change in the way of life of the individuals and it is assessed that there is likewise change in the requests and desire level of the shoppers (Singal, 2015). Clients have the information about the patterns in the market and furthermore with the adjustment in pattern the disposition of the clients changes. It is assessed that on the off chance that the inns discuss successfully with the clients, at that point development can be achieved appropriately (Law, Buhalis and Cobanoglu, 2014). Presently days, clients require additional advantages like free web offices, great conduct of the workers and appropriate administration offices in the room. On the off chance that there is distinction in the data expressed on the sites like change in the costs then it can bring the circumstance of losing clients (Mariani, Buhalis, Longhi and Vitouladiti, 2014). It is one of the basic parts identified with change in the interest of the clients. These issues can be considered as an obstruction to development in the neighborliness and the travel industry. It is imperative to consider most recent innovation with the goal that appropriate administrations can be given to the clients (Aragon-Correa, Martin-Tapia and de la Torre-Ruiz, 2015). It is seen that innovation is significant in each industry and there are numerous lodgings that gives accentuation on considering most recent innovation like computerized entryway watcher and self-administrations. In numerous areas these administrations are thought of so generally speaking fulfillment level of the clients can be upgraded (Baum, 2015).The clients are just pulled in towards the lodging that adjusts most recent advances and in the event that they are disappointed with the administrations, at that point it can result to lose in trust and gives negative effect on the picture of the organization (Nieves and Segarra-Ciprs, 2015). Proposal The issue identified with change in the interest of the clients can be settled by thinking about the most recent innovation. Following are the suggestions on which the inn business should provide accentuation so as to pull in client and keep up generosity in the market. Productive and prepared staff so request of the clients can be satisfied Preparing of the representatives is significant for expanding the fulfillment level of the clients. As, it has been expounded in the issues segment that the clients request is changing towards the administrations. The travel industry and cordiality industry should give accentuation on the prepared staff with the goal that the fulfillment level of the clients can be expanded. There are numerous methodologies that ought to be considered by the business so the clients can be pulled in towards the organization (Ladkin and Kichuk, 2017). The methodologies ought to be identified with estimating, security the board and furthermore procedure identified with grievances. Inn industry ought to likewise give accentuation on the value, appearance and tidiness with the goal that great picture can be kept up in the market and clients can likewise feel fulfilled. The travel industry and cordiality industry should give center around embracing most recent innovation and green condition with the goal t hat the clients can feel better and cheerful. So it is significant for the travel industry and cordiality industry to offer preparing to the representatives with the goal that appropriate administrations can be given to the clients (Harrington, Chathoth, Ottenbacher and Altinay, 2014). Most recent innovation By mulling over most recent innovation the organization can accomplish a huge piece of the pie in viable way. Innovation encourages the clients to pick up information about the most recent patterns winning in the market. The data that is given is identified with the promoting patterns which help clients to pick the inn according to the need. Cordiality and the travel industry should begin giving spotlight on most recent application with the goal that clients can book by settling down anyplace on the planet (Riley, 2014). In the event that the organizations adjust most recent innovation, at that point it tends to be anything but difficult to improve the fulfillment level of the clients and furthermore to expand the picture in the market. The cordiality and the travel industry should give accentuation on vitality the board framework with the goal that the bills identified with vitality can be limited. A screen sensor ought to likewise be thought of and put in the rooms with the goal that the lights can be turned off naturally when the guests leave the room. Most recent innovation likewise causes the organization to accumulate the data of the clients, so the exercises can be directed easily (Chen, Chen, Kerr, Kerr, Chou and Ang, 2017). There are numerous voyagers who mull over some type of cell phones with them on street. So to keep clients prompted about the progressions there are numerous travel industry and cordiality industry who think about the utilization of portable correspondence so to offer limits and area based promoting. With the utilization of most recent innovation the shoppers can book and analyze costs. Booking motors assists with diminishing the expense for movement organizations and furthermore it gives more control on the buying procedure. PC framework additionally assists with speaking with various offices that make simpler to book rooms and to get to the data that can improve the visitor experience. In neighborliness and the travel industry the utilization of web innovations can expand the income. Internet publicizing, web based life can help to persuade buyers to choose the area or business. The organizations should give accurate pictures so clients can think about the lodging they are visiting. In the event that the picture of the lodging isn't as indicated by the desire or the picture given on site at that point negative effect will be given on the picture of the organization. Eco cordial condition Buyers offer inclination to the green environmental factors. Cordiality and the travel industry should give center around keeping up the encompassing, with the goal that clients can be pulled in. The settlement administrations ought to likewise be improved by the business with the goal that overall revenue can be expanded. References Altinay, L., Paraskevas, A. what's more, Jang, S.S., 2015.Planning exploration in cordiality and the travel industry. Routledge. Aragon-Correa, J.A., Martin-Tapia, I. what's more, de la Torre-Ruiz, J., 2015. Manageability issues and cordiality and the travel industry firms methodologies: Analytical audit and future directions.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,27(3), pp.498-522. Baum, T., 2015. HR in the travel industry: Still sitting tight for change?A 2015 reprise.Tourism Management,50, pp.204-212. Chen, J.S., Chen, J.S., Kerr, D., Kerr, D., Chou, C.Y., Chou, C.Y., Ang, C. what's more, Ang, C., 2017. Business co-creation for administration development in the cordiality and the travel industry industry.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,29(6), pp.1522-1540. Fraj, E., Matute, J. furthermore, Melero, I., 2015. Ecological techniques and authoritative intensity in the lodging business: The job of learning and advancement as determinants of natural success.Tourism Management,46, pp.30-42. Harrington, R., K. Chathoth, P., Ottenbacher, M. furthermore, Altinay, L., 2014. Vital administration research in cordiality and the travel industry: past, present and future.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,26(5), pp.778-808. Ladkin, A. furthermore, Kichuk, A., 2017. Profession Progression in Hospitality and Tourism Settings. Law, R., Buhalis, D. furthermore, Cobanoglu, C., 2014. Progress on data and correspondence advancements in cordiality and tourism.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,26(5), pp.727-750. Mariani, M.M., Buhalis, D., Longhi, C. furthermore, Vitouladiti, O., 2014. Overseeing change in the travel industry goals: Key issues and current trends.Journal of Destination Marketing Management,2(4), pp.269-272. Nieves, J. what's more, Segarra-Ciprs, M., 2015. The executives development in the inn industry.Tourism Management,46, pp.51-58. Riley, M., 2014.Human asset the executives in the friendliness and the travel industry. Routledge. Singal, M., 2015. How is the hos

Leadership Development Action free essay sample

So as to turn into a model chief, I intend to fortify my shortcoming in regions got from i360 appraisals basically concentrating on three zones: dynamic, time the board and correspondence. As I have taken in the significance of instructing, and have seen the procedure as of advantage, I look for capability in the regions of administration practices. The sort of practices that will fortify utilization of transferable apparatuses need to develop as I long to motivate others to imagine their prospects, and follow up on them. My optimal way is as a matter of first importance to remain on target and effectively complete the MBA program. As I gained changing abilities, I anticipate the way that will assist me with understanding ideas expected to begin a hotly anticipated dream, a setting up office with extraordinary accentuation on inabilities as a plant seeds to develop. Task Review I have gained from schoolmates during conversations posts seeing administration capabilities, for example, on account of Paul Levy‘s Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center contextual investigation. We will compose a custom article test on Administration Development Action or on the other hand any comparative point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Concerning individuals meeting up, I comprehend the significance of having a dream and how one becomes constrained to find out additional. My meeting with Dr. A. Ward was as reviving as she tested the procedure by beating the chances of prejudice, sexism, and destitution. What's more, as I come to grasp effects of various administration practices, I understand that it is so critical to design little successes and to be engaged by others. The street taken to have my vision woken up includes more than the idea; on the off chance that you dont know where youre going, you may wind up somewhere else (Nanus, p 317). In view of the guidance I got from Levy’s case, I am settling on better choices and discovered news approaches to propel individuals just as investigate gives all the more suitably. Capabilities I Wish to Develop The abilities I wish to create are: testing the procedure, model the way and empower others to act. At the point when I consider creating skills, I think about my meeting with Dr. Ward’s battles at beating the chances as a solitary parent of four, shaking things up, and that she figured out how to make training a round of rivalry as she demonstrated the path for other people. I also challenge the procedure as there are relatively few organizations existing that are eager to go the additional mile to enlist somebody who may require extra preparing. I intend to set the case of the significance of up close and personal intuitiveness by soliciting fruitful pioneers to give some from their time back to networks out of luck. Physical contact will permit our customers to concentrate on their objectives as they are enlivened from our examples of overcoming adversity. As we scan for circumstances, I need to empower others to act from examples of overcoming adversity shared to rouse oppressed kids that they can take off also. To reinforce others, I have to create and settle on increasingly educated choices and be progressively practical on the best way to conquer boundaries. As Dr. Ward talked about her authority viability, she tested the procedure assessing the results of her activities realizing the chances were against her succeeding. As I understand the chances of discovering work might be testing, I am up for the test. We should be in tuned with ourselves. So as to convey data appropriately; there’s reality. I set myself up for the most noticeably awful at unsurpassed. As I investigate every hypothesis, I understand there is so much feeling included hypothesis we acknowledge, one thing we need to remember as we center around being pioneers, Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2008) states: â€Å"How well pioneers deal with their temperaments and influence everybody else’s dispositions, at that point, becomes a private issue, yet a factor in how well a business will do. Feelings play into how we challenge the procedure, corresponding to trying for a reason. My Stretch Plan I can keep on checking on best practices shared from different assets and acquaint them with our foundation to uplift execution levels. I will keep on positively affecting the position I hold at the school where I work. I work in a period delicate condition; I dread not meeting objectives as precisely as proposed. In the midst of vulnerability, I guarantee to imamate Levy activities as he addressed requests auspicious. I intend to use to time the executives abilities all the more successfully as I have taken in the outcomes of not complying with time constraints. Notwithstanding the certainty of slip-ups and disappointment, abilities obtained from the program will permit me to reposition myself into turning into an all the more remarkable entertainer that invites space for change and the mindfulness it brings. I am as of now extended, as I work eight to ten hours day by day, five days per week; one extra day four to six hours low maintenance as an accountant and is known as a mother and spouse, cook, will I say more. I have surrendered a large portion of my leisure time; I scarcely have time as an individual. As a pioneer, I will keep on exhibiting my extreme pledge to the qualities I uphold by setting a model that difficult work pays off. So as to get fruitful during this interest, I should be a pragmatist and get that in the event that I can’t oversee time successfully, I won’t make it. Therefore, I stretch to reload and begin considering my immediate reports progressively responsible for their activities to save some time whereby I may have the option to unwind. I additionally need to concentrate on appointing and following up as I intend to utilize administration advancement as a manual for set out as I improve my capacity to challenge the procedure. Initiative Values, Goals Mission My Vision as a pioneer is to have the option to ace a numerous administration abilities with the goal that I can successfully convey my objectives. As I understand my essential vision is to bring in cash, the subsequent energy is to put resources into a business to rouse others with the goal that they also can do likewise. As I need to concentrate on evolving, adjusting, and enabling individuals to understand their own vitality. I anticipate finishing this degree. As Dr. Ward explained there were a ton of wasteful aspects and disappointments she figured out how to challenge the route by sharing her encounters utilizing passionate and bona fide administration qualities, I also need to acknowledge what lies ahead and be straightforward with myself need to create capability and certainty more inside so I can proceed to interpose and rehearse new encounters with my staff. Pioneers increment the faith in their own capacity to have any kind of effect, as indicated by Kouzes Posner, (2007), pioneers help other people to learn new aptitudes and improvement existing gifts, and they offer the institutional help required for progressing development and change. In the last investigation, what pioneers are doing is transforming their constituents into pioneers (251). My future staffing and strengthening office crucial to do only that. What I Have Learned As I concur with Kotter (2008), initiative and the board are two particular and integral frameworks of activity, and are vital for achievement of all undertakings, I realize they should coincide. Since there are such a large number of similitudes in the two capacities, I influence to and fro on the methodologies of why one overrides the other. While it might be anything but difficult to express that both administration and the board need to adjust each other dependent on activities that fall under the two speculations. The individuals who act in administrative positions have restrictions on the grounds that their dreams are smaller scale overseen. As we arrange among one another, (pioneers and administrators) and keeping in mind that pioneers are viewed as the visionaries, how can it be that they need troughs to complete their fantasies? I accept the mind-set and tone sets a contrast between pioneers. I need to tune in and center around what is being communicated. Associating with staff individuals on a positive light can be fulfilling, backward, as a pioneer, it can cause all out political agitation. Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee (2008) accept extraordinary initiative works through their feelings (p 16). As I concur with the genuine methodology, and profoundly accept that you should consistently act naturally. Bennis (2008) states, â€Å"authentic pioneers are liberal and may encounter an ache at watching somebody achieve something they can't do† by then, feelings are running high (p 73). Also, due to their activities, paying little mind to their initiative conduct, they really want to get passionate; it is an inescapable trademark. I additionally discovered that individuals have abilities to become solid troughs, however not sufficiently able to lead. For example, on account of a balanced teacher who is unequipped for conveying great guidance to understudies. Solid administration with feeble administration is no better, and is once in a while in reality more regrettable, than the converse. (Kotter, 2008). Introductory conduct changes come straightforwardly from administrators; despite the fact that authority is about change, the board and initiative are tied in with adapting to complexities, both are managers, both are popular. I realize that my fantasy includes Kouzes Posner, (2007), â€Å"Leaders know well that development and change includes testing and facing challenges. One method of managing the potential dangers and disappointment of experimentation is to move toward change through steady advances and little successes; and that the key that opens the entryway to circumstance is learning† (pp 19-20). The two nearest styles I related with most are passionate and genuine administration as I feel they interrelate. As on account of Dr. King’s, â€Å"I have a Dream â€Å"speech. While the majority of us have figured out how to ascend from the event, and see, truly, humanity has made considerable progress, on the off chance that we are to live as one, we have yet far to go; activities for good initiative are of extraordinary need. We should understand that we can't walk alone, coordinated effort is required. Dr. Ruler convictions were bona fide and feeling as he caught the nation’s thoughtfulness regarding address fairness. This discourse motivated me to stay focused on the reason for acting naturally, a caring individual that tunes in and follows up on the necessities of others

Important Tips For Writing a Recycle Essay Topic

Important Tips For Writing a Recycle Essay TopicIf you are thinking about getting a degree in educational writing, why not consider a career with the recycle essay topics. This is a great option for individuals who want to earn a college degree while also participating in an environmental cause.The term 'recycle essay topics' is actually an international term. The concept behind the recycle essay topics is that a writing assignment will consist of a group of different words, all with unique meanings, and then those words are then recycled to make another set of words that have a particular meaning.The idea behind the recycle essay topics is to get students to reflect on topics and to find new and unique ways to express their thoughts. So, let's discuss the recycle essay topics.There are a variety of factors that go into deciding which recycling essay topics a student should write for a class. These factors are sometimes specific to the particular course the student is taking, but mor e often than not it is something that a teacher has developed as part of a generic policy on the subject. For example, if the recycling essay topics pertain to wildlife conservation, then the instructor may very well provide a list of words or phrases that pertain to this topic.One of the most important things to remember when using the recycle essay topics is that you need to be able to adapt them to a variety of different topics. You can do this by spending some time with a good dictionary and determining the true meanings of the words you come across. Once you find these words, you should then select an appropriate sentence structure and a proper word choice.Another thing to keep in mind when writing recycle essay topics is that you need to use creative thinking when putting together your sentences. For example, instead of simply stating a fact, you could instead come up with a case study, a metaphor, or even use a vivid example to help you think through your thoughts and ideas.T he process of writing recycle essay topics should also be something that requires some dedication. You should spend as much time as you can consider your choices and then you should ensure that you review the finished piece of work.Most of all, though, you should have a lot of practice with this topic because it is one that will be used regularly. In fact, many people will find that they never really get over the fact that they were required to write a recycle essay topic!

If A Social Security Act Were Being Built Today - 904 Words

If a Social Security Act were being built today, I think it would look much different from the version that was created in 1935. There are many factors that have changed dramatically, and while there have been updates along the way in an attempt to address them, the program has still lagged behind to cause some to question its effectiveness and longevity. The very idea that government would be intervening in something that has such a large economic impact on the economy is frightening, but I do not feel we can rely on a system without Social Security. Today people live longer, has less saving, and right or wrong, have a higher expectation of living than people did decades ago. We live in a civilized country that contributes to helping others throughout the world, would we turn on back on our elderly or hope that someone else will find a solution? The idea of keeping government out and allowing a private solution sounds great, but ultimately I feel the problem will shift onto the citizens. In order to have the security we desire, some of our freedoms need to be given up. There are specific roles for which government action is unavoidable which Ryan Messmore points out, such as protection, national security, and federal social programs. On the contrary, he also points out that with that, the government holds too much power to influence citizens. He states, â€Å"The powers to pass laws and collect taxes entail the power to define, to some extent, the terms of publicShow MoreRelatedSocial Security And Economic Security1311 Words   |  6 Pages In 2033 a retiree with the average Social Security benefits of $1,294 will only receive 77% of this number or $996. This average retiree pays the average monthly costs for a single adult in Grand Rapids, Michigan of $1,323. 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Power and Liabilities of the Karta - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3323 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Analytical essay Tags: Power Essay Did you like this example? Contents Introductionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦3 People eligible to be Kartaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦3 Minor as Karta..à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã ¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦3 Father as Kartaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.4 Female as Karta before and post 2005à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢ ‚ ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.4 Responsibilities of the Kartaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.4 Powers and Liabilities of the Kartaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦5 Power to manage family affairs ..à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦5 Powers to receive and use family incomeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦5 Power to manage joint family businessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..6 Power to Alienateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â €š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..6 Liabilities of accountà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.7 Power and liability to represent in suits à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã ¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦7 Power and liability to acknowledge debtsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.8 Powers to contract debts for family purposeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦8 Power of Arbitrationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢ ‚ ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦8 Power and liability to settle family disputesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦8 Conclusion à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦9 Bibliographyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦10 An analysis of Responsibilities, Power and Liabilities of the Karta . Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Power and Liabilities of the Karta" essay for you Create order Introduction A joint family is a unique institution under Hindu Law[1]. It is an institute whose members own property by its name, which has many persons as its members, having different rights over the property and also rights and duties towards one another. The Karta is the head and the manager of the joint family and acts on behalf of the family, he holds an important position in the joint family. He has innumerable rights and powers but these powers are not available to the any other coparceners .The paper attempts to discuss about the people who can become a Karta, the change in law post 2005 which included females as Karta and mainly focuses on the responsibilities, power and liabilities of the Karta. People eligible to be Karta The senior most male member is generally assumed to be the Karta of a Hindu joint family[2]. He should be fit to act as the Karta and not suffering from any mental or physical disorder[3]. He is the head of the family and has the custodian of the joint family property. The Karta is the manager of the joint family property but he has certain exclusive powers. The position of the Karta is decided by birth and regulated with seniority[4]. Minor as Karta A minor can act as the Karta and represent the family through guardian[5]. A minor cannot manage the joint family property as long as the Karta is accessible except when the Karta gives up his right explicitly or by vital ramifications or in his absence in extraordinary and unusual circumstances, for example, trouble or disaster influencing the entire family and for supporting the family or where his whereabouts are not known or he is away in a remote place because of unavoidable circumstances and his return inside within a reasonable time could not be expected. In Nopany Investors (Pvt) Ltd v. Santokh Singh[6], the court laid down these guidelines as to when a minor could be a Karta. Father as Karta The father is usually considered as the Karta and in the absence of the father which is not permanent is not enough for the son to become the Karta, if there is no proof to show that the father is in a remote nation or his whereabouts are not known or his return within a reasonable time is out of inquiry. So long as the Karta is alive nobody else on his own could become the Karta, and if the Karta wants to do so, he continues to occupy the representative capacity even when he might not be looking into the family affairs due to reasons of age or health[7]. On his wish to not continue as the Karta, he can explicitly give up this position and with the permission of the other family members, an alternate coparcener can be designated as the Karta even when he might be not the senior most member in line. In any case if there is any clash of permission, the senior most members is assumed to be the Karta. If a younger brother joins the elder brother in a family transaction, that would n ot influence the position of the elder brother as the Karta. In Narendrakumar J. Modi v. Commissioner of Income Tax[8] it was stated that if a younger brother acts as the Karta with the consent of all the other family members during the life time of his elder brother, he is permitted to do so[9]. Females as Karta before and post 2005 To be a Karta, it is required to be a coparcener and since females were not taken as coparcener, she was not permitted to be a Karta nor she was allowed to represent the family. In Income-tax v. Seth Govind Ram[10] it was stated that a female member of a joint family is not entitled to be the Karta and she does not have the power to alienate the joint family property. In Commissioner of Income Tax v. Lakshmi Narang[11] it was held that under certain special circumstances, a female could act as a Karta and her decision would be binding on the family members. After the Amendment Act of 2005, a daughter is a coparcener in the same way as a son. Since she is can be a coparcener, she is qualified for be a Karta. Responsibilities of the Karta The prevalent position of the Karta is filled with many responsibilities. His main responsibility is to provide residence and maintenance to the rest of the family members[12] and to look after the satisfaction of the needs of the other family members. This includes the marriage expenses of all unmarried children and the burial expenses of departed members. He also has the responsibility to protect the family in all prosecution that may be filed against the family or by any member of the family or any outsider. As he deals with the property he has the obligation to pay the entire statutory or other dues of the family like taxes, debts, etc[13]. Powers and Liabilities of the Karta The Karta has certain exclusive powers which are not available to any other family member or coparceners. He has the power of management of all family affairs which are unlimited and he can even decide which member of the family should stay in which portion of the house and also to decide if the family member is eligible to stay in the house or not. He is supposed to receive the family income and decide on which purpose it is supposed to be spent. The Karta also has certain alienation power of the joint family property with the consent of the other coparceners but this power is restricted by certain limitations. He is entitled to maintain all the members of the family. He is liable to disclose the accounts of the family only in case of partition and also to settle family debts and disputes. All these powers and liabilities of the Karta are discussed below. Power to manage family affairs The Karta is the head of the family and has the ability to deal with the family issues and the family property, though his powers to alienate the joint family property is limited, his power to manage the family are absolute[14]. He has the ability to take ownership of the aggregate property and get the joint family income from whichever source it may come. No individual coparcener has the power of exclusive ownership of a particular joint family property or family income without the consent of the Karta. If a coparcener forcefully occupies a particular segment of the joint family property without the permission of the Karta, the Karta has the power to evict him from that property. The Karta also has the power to discard a coparcener of the house, if his bad habits or bad behaviour creates nuisance in the house. The coparcener does not have the power to challenge the Kartaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s decision, all he could do is seek partition and move out of the family. The Karta has the po wer to decide about the residence of the family members, this decision cannot be challenged on the basis of equity or partiality and he can discriminate members according to his choice. Power to receive and use family income The Karta has the right to get the joint family income for the administration of joint family issues. He also has the power to decide on how this income will be spent. The Karta can use the income for the maintenance and education of the family members or lawful need that would bring profit for the family. He can use the money for providing accommodation to the family members. In C.I.T. v. P.L Karuppan Chettair[15] it was stated that if the Karta inherits a property in his individual capacity, it is treated as his separate property and the incomes arising out of it is not treated as an income of the joint family. In this case, the father separated from his wife and son. The son, his wife and children formed a separate joint family. In due course of time, the father died and the son inherited his property. This property which the son inherited was treated as a property he inherited in his individual property and it was not a part of the joint family property[16]. Power to manage joint family business The Karta is entrusted with the management of the joint family business. He has the liberty to take any decision which will result in the promotion of the joint family business. But he is not permitted to do any act with the joint family business which is for his own personal benefit. In P.S. Sairam v. P. S. Rama Rao[17] the Karta of the joint family used the joint family property for the premises his separate business. It was stated that it was a joint family property and the Karta by no means had the power to use it for his own separate business[18]. Power to Alienate The Karta`s power of alienating the joint family property are restricted and it can only be practiced with the consent of rest of the coparceners. Where the coparcener does not give consent or is unequipped for giving consent being a minor the Karta can alienate the property just for legal necessity[19] or for execution of religious or beneficent purposes or family necessity[20] or when the transaction brings about profit for all members of the family. In such cases, the alienation would be binding on the entire family[21] including minors. In case there is an unauthorized alienation, the coparceners have the power to question the alienation and seek for a decree to cancel it. In Manohar v. Dewan[22] it was stated that an alienation without the consent of all the coparceners which is illegal is void. In Balmukand v. Kamla Wati[23] it has been stated that if all the other adult members refuse to a certain transaction, then no part of the joint family property can be disposed off by the Karta on the ground for the benefit of the family. In Karam Singh v. Nazir Singh[24] ancestral property was in dispute, the Karta and his son formed coparcenary and this alienation was challenged. In Dev Kishan v. Ram Kishan[25] the Karta mortgaged the joint family property for the marriage of his minor children[26]. This debt of the Karta was not considered to be a debt of legal necessity. In Sunil Kumar v. Ram Prakash[27] case, questions were raised that if a coparcener has the power to get a permanent injunction against the Karta to stop him from alienation of the joint family property. It was decided that a coparcener does not have any such right and the only possible remedy available to him is to challenge the alienation. In V. K. Surendra v. V. K. Thimmaiah[28] it was decided that the Karta does not have the power to change the character of the joint family property by transferring it under Will or gift to anyone without the consent of the other coparceners. Liabilities of account The Karta is not bound to keep account on his usage of family funds because it is assumed that he will be acting for the best interest of the family. However where a coparcener seeks partition, he can approach the Karta to provide him the accounts. The Karta has to provide him the accounts in such a situation but the Karta will only be accountable of the date when the coparcener demands partition and not past accounts unless there lays any allegation of fraud, misrepresentation or conversion by the Karta of the joint family property to his own personal property[29]. He is only liable for the existing properties to be divided among the coparceners[30]. In such cases the Karta is bound to show the accounts when partition of the joint family properties is to be effected among all the other members[31]. Power and liability to represent in suits The Karta is assumed to act on behalf of the entire joint family and he has the power to represent the joint family if there is a suit by or against the joint family and when a decree is passed it binds all the members of the joint family even the minors[32]. A suit has to be filled by the family in the name of the Karta or if it is against the family has to be defended by him. In Singriah v. Ramanuj[33] it has been stated that the Karta represents the entire joint family in case of litigations. Power and liability to acknowledge debts The Karta has the power to acknowledge and settle family debts because of the family and also to pay the interests on it. The obligation to pay the debt may have been made by all other members of the family or by the Karta alone on behalf of the family[34]. Also where a loan is made by the Karta by executing a promissory note in his name for a legal reason, such a note ties the other coparceners but only to the limit of their shares unless it could be proved that they were a part of the contract. In Dassappa v. Vedarathamma[35] it was stated that the Karta does not have the power to acknowledge a debt which is time barred. He also has the power to discharge a debt which is due to the joint family. In Rangaswamy v. A. P. Transco[36] it has been stated that the Karta is solely responsible for the debts he has incurred after partition. Powers to contract debts for family purpose The Karta has powers to make debts for utilizing it in the family business[37] or for another legal reason and such a debt ties the share of all other coparceners. A coparcener by means of partition cannot get away from the obligation to settle the debt made by the Karta, from his portion of the property. Such debt contracts bind all the adult coparceners and even the minors. Power of Arbitration The Karta has the power to refer to arbitration in matters involving the interest of the joint family. Where such reference to arbitration or compromise is for the benefit of the family all family members including the minors are bound by it. Power and liability to settle family disputes If there raised an issue between the family members or family members and outsiders, the Karta can enter into a bargain on behalf of the family but not when he would incur some personal benefit. The Karta has the absolute power to settle family disputes in order to bring about peace in the family. He also has the power to discard a family member out of the family if he is found to be behind the disputes in the family. Conclusion The Karta of a Hindu joint family has a position which is superior that the rest of the members. He acts as a manager of the joint family property, takes care of the maintenance of the members of the family, his acts are to be treated as on behalf of the whole family. The Karta of the joint family represents the whole family when a suit is filled by or against the entire family. He is the main working unit of the family and his decisions are mostly binding on the rest of the members of the family. He has various powers as well as responsibilities and liabilities. His power of alienation is only limited by certain restrictions. The Karta is the most important person of a joint family on whom other members are dependent on for various needs like food, shelter, etc. A joint family is a complex entity and the Karta is solely responsible for the proper functioning of the joint family. The numerous powers of the Karta are guided by numerous restrictions to prevent him for wrongful use of his power, with power, responsibilities are also imposed on the Karta. This ensures that the Karta works for the best of the entire joint family. There are plenty of remedies available to the other members to ensure the proper functioning of the Karta. Bibliography Books: Poonam Pradhan Saxena, Family Law Lectures : Family Law II (3rd edn, Lexis Nexis, 2011). Ajai Gaur Gaur, Commentaries on the hindu law (Dwivedi Co, 2007). S K Mitra, Mitra on hindu law: as amended by the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005 (3 rd edn, Orient Publishing, 2010). A G Gupte, The Hindu Succession Act, 1956: as amended by The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005 (Premier Publishing Co, 2006). Ranganath, Mayneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s treatise on hindu law and usage (15th edn. Bharat Law House, 2006). Cases Cited: Suraj Bansi Koer v. Sheo Prasad (1880) 5 Cal 148. Narendrakumar J. Modi v. Commissioner of Income Tax AIR (1976) SC 1953. Nopany Investors (Pvt) Ltd v. Santokh Singh AIR (2008) SC 673.Income-tax v. Seth Govind Ram (1966) SC 2. Commissioner of Income Tax v. Lakshmi Narang (1948) ILR Nag 775. C.I.T. v P.L Karuppan Chettair (1993) Supp (1) SCC 580: (1992) 197 ITR 646. P.S. Sairam v. P. S. Rama Rao AIR (2004) SC 1619: (2004)II SCC 320. Guramma Bhratar Chanbasappa Deshmukh v. Malappa AIR (1964) SC 510. Kandasami v. Somakanda (1912) 35 Mad 117. Manohar v Dewan (1985) P. H. 313. Balmukand v. Kamla Wati AIR (1964) SC 1385. Karam Singh v. Nazir Singh AIR (2003) P H 172. Dev Kishan v. Ram Kishan AIR (2002) Raj 370. Sunil Kumar v. Ram Prakash (1988) SC 576. V. K. Surendra v. V. K. Thimmaiah (2013) 10 SC 211. Damodar Misra v. Banamali Misra AIR (1967) Ori 61. S. Krishnan v. K. Narayana Iyer AIR (1986) Ker 267. Singriah v. Ramanuj AIR 1959 Mys 239 (DB). Rangaswamy v. A. P. Transco (2002) 4 ALT 108. Ram v. Ratan (1931) P.C. 136. Dassappa v. Vedarathamma (1972) Mys 288. 1 | Page [1] Poonam Pradhan Saxena, Family Law Lectures: Family Law II (3rd edn, Lexis Nexis, 2011)143. [2] Ibid. [3] Suraj Bansi Koer v. Sheo Prasad (1880) 5 Cal 148. [4] Ranganath, Mayneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s treatise on hindu law and usage (15th edn. Bharat Law House, 2006)759. [5] Poonam Pradhan Saxena, Family Law Lectures: Family Law II (3rd edn, Lexis Nexis, 2011)144. [6] AIR (2008) SC 673 [7] Poonam Pradhan Saxena, Family Law Lectures: Family Law II (3rd edn, Lexis Nexis, 2011)144. [8] AIR (1976) SC 1953. [9] A G Gupte, The Hindu Succession Act, 1956: as amended by The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005 (Premier Publishing Co, 2006)1405. [10] (1966) SC 2. [11] (1948) ILR Nag 775 [12] Poonam Pradhan Saxena, Family Law Lectures: Family Law II (3rd edn, Lexis Nexis, 2011)147. [13] Poonam Pradhan Saxena, Family Law Lectures: Family Law II (3rd edn, Lexis Nexis, 2011)148. [14] Ibid. [15] (1993) Supp (1) SCC 580: (1992) 197 ITR 646. [16] S K M itra, Mitra on hindu law: as amended by the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005 (3 rd edn, Orient Publishing, 2010)78. [17] AIR (2004) SC 1619: (2004)II SCC 320. [18] Ajai Gaur Gaur, Commentaries on the hindu law (Dwivedi Co, 2007)922. [19] Legal necessity does not mean actual compulsion, it refers to the pressure on the estate which in law can be regarded as serious and sufficient. [20] Guramma Bhratar Chanbasappa Deshmukh v. Malappa AIR (1964) SC 510. [21] Kandasami v. Somakanda (1912) 35 Mad 117. [22] (1985) P. H. 313. [23] AIR (1964) SC 1385. [24] AIR (2003) P H 172. [25] AIR (2002) Raj 370. [26] S K Mitra, Mitra on hindu law: as amended by the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005 (3 rd edn, Orient Publishing, 2010)88. [27] (1988) SC 576. [28] (2013) 10 SC 211. [29] A G Gupte, The Hindu Succession Act, 1956: as amended by The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005 (Premier Publishing Co, 2006)1409. [30] Damodar Misra v. Banamali Misr a AIR (1967) Ori 61. [31] S. Krishnan v. K. Narayana Iyer AIR (1986) Ker 267. [32] A G Gupte, The Hindu Succession Act, 1956: as amended by The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005 (Premier Publishing Co, 2006)1411. [33] AIR 1959 Mys 239 (DB). [34] Poonam Pradhan Saxena, Family Law Lectures: Family Law II (3rd edn, Lexis Nexis, 2011)151. [35] (1972) Mys 288. [36] (2002) 4 ALT 108. [37] Ram v. Ratan (1931) P.C. 136.

Napoleon And The French Revolution - 850 Words

August 15th, 1769, a date that to this day many do not remember, but remains one of the most defining periods in France s history, and certainly a date that bore significant implications in what was to become the French Revolution; for on this day was the birth of one of the most influential political figures in France s history, as well as an astute and daring military commander-- Napoleon Bonaparte. Little did his upper-middle class parents know that on that day their miracle would write the history books and become one of the most powerful military commanders and influential political figures in legal history. As aforementioned, Napoleon is considered to be one of thee greatest critical thinking military minds and strategists to have lived. Napoleon graced the French military with distinction, and it was his power and reputation that drove him on. Napoleon rose fairly quickly through the ranks, having been made commander of the French army at the age of 27 where he defeated the Austrians in an attempt to seek peace. Following this victory, France’s borders extended east towards the Rhine River as a result of Bonaparte’s negotiations over the Treaty of Campo Formio. Following the Coup D’Etar of 1799, Napoleon came to power. It is perhaps here, where Napoleon’s rise would begin to truly ingrain itself into history starting with his long lasting contribution of the Napoleonic Code, today known as the Civil Code. The Napoleonic Code was written at a time in historyShow MoreRelatedNapoleon And The French Revolution1349 Words   |  6 Pages With all the glory and the splendour that some countries may have experienced, never has history seen how only only one man, Napoleon, brought up his country France from its most tormented status, to the very pinnacle of its height in just a few years time. 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Demand and Supply Analysis of Australian Organic Market

Question: Discuss about the Demand and Supply Analysis of Australian Organic Market. Answer: Introduction: The essay paper has been critically designed to discuss the relation between supply and demand of a product in order to fix the product pricing. Supply and demand can be identified as the fundamental of economics to determine the product pricing of a particular product in a given market. The term supply mainly delineates the quality of a particular product offered to the consumers in a specific market. Conversely, the demand for a product signifies the actual quality needed for market consumers (Hochwald, Davidson and Smolensky, 2015). Meanwhile, the theoretical concept of demand and supply can control the pricing of a product in any given marketplace. Fundamentally, if supply remains constant for a particular product and demand increases, the price of the product will surge in an automatic way. Also, if supply shortage of a product can be seen, the price of a product will also increase. The identified article has been taken into consideration to know more about the demand surge of organic food products in the Australian market and the impact of the surging demand in the product pricing (Hendy, 2012). The growing demand for organic food products and organic wine has created significant investment opportunities for many entrepreneurs. Moreover, the healthy food habits and lifestyle of the Australian public has driven the demand for organic foods, cosmetics and beverages to the next level. In the current market scenario, Australians have shown more interest in chemical-free food products, cosmetics and beverages in the recent time. According to a report published by the Biological Farmers of Australia (BFA), 60 percent of Australians have gone for organic products whereas in 2008, the percentage recorded was 40. The sudden surge in demand for the organic products has opened up new prospects for the agricultural industry. Under the existing circumstances, the current growth rate of organic market is mere 1%. Meanwhile, due to the outstanding demand formation, the BFA has predicted that the organic industry will grow by 3-5% by 2020 (Hendy, 2012). Such expansion of the organic market in the retail industry can deliver massive economic structure to deal with in the upcoming future. Herein, the major question to be asked whether the massive surge in demand for the organic product will increase the price of those goods or not (Aspris et al., 2013). Through the identificatio n of vast retailers and market consumers available in the Australian market, a prediction of future pricing will be evident. The expanding business dimensions of the organic industry are not restricted by investments or availability of resources. Moreover, the booming growth in organic food, cosmetics and beverage industry has not impacted the pricing too much (Ravindra and Iyer, 2014). It can be seen through recent study that the production of organic products has increased in the recent years that has made the products easily available in the market. Currently, the supermarkets have turned towards the growth of organic product section with easy availability of products that has kept the supply adequate in the market (Hendy, 2012). A figure has been presented below that shows how the production of organic products have increased in the recent years. Figure: Increase in Organic farming Source: (Dring, 2013) The current situation of demand and supply in the organic market of Australia can be explained with the help of the diagram given below. It can be seen from the figure that the demand of organic products is increasing that may lead to a rise in the price of the products (Halpin, Daugbjerg and Schvartzman, 2011). A shift can be seen in the demand curve from D to D1 that leads to an increase in the price from P to P1. But, in actual scenario, the supply is also increasing due to new ventures and easy availability of products that has led to a shift in the supply curve from S to S1 results in stabilising the price at P. Figure: Australian Organic Market Demand-Supply Source: (Conacher and Conacher, 2011) Hence, it can be seen from the above explanation that the price of organic products has not raised in the past years because of increasing supply of the product. Many new farmers have moved towards the cultivation of organic products (Lockeretz, 2007). Along with that, new brands of organic products have been introduced by several small entrepreneurs that increase the level of competition and keep the price controlled. It is expected that the demand for organic products will rise at a higher pace as compared to the quantity supplied (Newton, 2015). This is because of the scarcity of water resources in the nation. Along with that, the increase price of water and draught in the nation will impact the production of organic products. The demand will keep on rising that will impact the price of the products in the future. A graph has been presented below for better understanding. Figure: Demand Supply Curve Source: (Hochwald, Davidson and Smolensky, 2015) It can be seen from the above graph that the quantity demanded for organic products will increase in the future that will shift the demand curve from Demand before to Demand after. But, the supply will remain constant in the future. It will result in the rise of the price of organic products from P1 to P2 in the future. Hence, estimation shows that the organic market of Australia will evident a price hike in the future due to the higher rate of increase in the demand (Halpin, Daugbjerg and Schvartzman, 2011). The organic market in Australia has advanced in the best possible way carrying the most suitable performing categories such as food sector, cosmetics sector and wine industry. Moreover, the sustainable availability of the organic ingredients has controlled the pricing of the products in an efficient. Nevertheless, the surge in sudden demand from the target demographics of natural products can play a crucial role in the price range of the products. Though the organic products are priced at affordable price tags, in future the surge in demand can increase the costs. Conclusively, the stability in demand and supply of organic products has kept the prices in check in the Australia that can be changed in the future if the demand exceeds supply. References Aspris, A., Finch, N., Foley, S. and Meyer, Z. (2013). Fundamental-based Market Strategies.Australian Accounting Review, 23(4), pp.380-392. Conacher, J. and Conacher, A. (2011). An Update on Organic Farming and the Development of the Organic Industry in Australia.Biological Agriculture Horticulture, 8(1), pp.1-16. Dring, T. (2013). A Fresh Start for Organic Farming Research.Organic Farming, 1(1). Halpin, D., Daugbjerg, C. and Schvartzman, Y. (2011). Interest-group capacities and infant industry development: State-sponsored growth in organic farming.International Political Science Review, 32(2), pp.147-166. Hendy, N. (2012).Talk about organic growth. [online] The Sydney Morning Herald. Available at: https://www.smh.com.au/small-business/growing/talk-about-organic-growth-20120523-1z4fv.html [Accessed Sep. 2016]. Hochwald, W., Davidson, P. and Smolensky, E. (2015). Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis.Econometrica, 33(3), p.655. Lockeretz, W. (2007).Organic farming. Cambridge, MA: CABI. Newton, J. (2015).Profitable organic farming. Oxford: Blackwell Science. Ravindra, K. and Iyer, P. (2014). Decentralized demandsupply matching using community microgrids and consumer demand response: A scenario analysis.Energy, 76, pp.32-41.

Impact of Technology free essay sample

Students in the early grades, from pre-K to grade 3, and in the middle school grades appear to benefit most from DES applications for reading instruction, as do students with special reading needs. In a 2000 study commissioned by the Software and Information Industry Association, Sivin-Kachala and Bialo (2000) reviewed 311 research studies on the effectiveness of technology on student achievement. Their findings revealed positive and consistent patterns when students were engaged in technology-rich environments, including significant gains and achievement in all subject areas, increased achievement in preschool through high school for both regular and special needs students, and improved attitudes toward learning and increased self-esteem. ODwyer, Russell, Bebell, and Tucker-Seeley (2005) found that, while controlling for both prior achievement and socioeconomic status, fourth-grade students who reported greater frequency of technology use at school to edit papers were likely to have higher total English/language arts test scores and higher writing scores on fourth grade test scores on the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) English/Language Arts test. We will write a custom essay sample on Impact of Technology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Michigans Freedom to Learn (FTL) initiative, an effort to provide middle school students and teachers with access to wireless laptop computers, has been credited with improving grades, motivation and discipline in classrooms across the state, with one exemplary school seeing reading proficiency scores on the Michigan Education Assessment Program (MEAP) test, administered in January 2005, reportedly increasing from 29 percent to 41 percent for seventh graders and from 31 to 63 percent for eighth graders (eSchool News, 2005). In examining large-scale state and national studies, as well as some innovative smaller studies on newer educational technologies, Schacter (1999) found that students with access to any of a number of technologies (such as computer assisted instruction, integrated learning systems, simulations and software that teaches higher order thinking, collaborative networked technologies, or design and programming technologies) show positive gains in achievement on researcher constructed tests, standardized tests, and national tests. Cavanaughs synthesis (2001) of 19 experimental and quasi-experimental studies of the effectiveness of interactive distance education using videoconferencing and telecommunications for K-12 academic achievement found a small positive effect in favor of distance education and more positive effect sizes for interactive distance education programs that combine an individualized approach with traditional classroom instruction. Boster, Meyer, Roberto, Inge (2002) examined the integration of standards-based video clips into lessons developed by classroom teachers and found increases student achievement. The study of more than 1,400 elementary and middle school students in three Virginia school districts showed an average increase in learning for students exposed to the video clip application compared to students who received traditional instruction alone. Wenglinsky (1998) noted that for fourth- and eighth-graders technology has positive benefits on achievement as measured in NAEPs mathematics test. Interestingly, Wenglinsky found that using computers to teach low order thinking skills, such as drill and practice, had a negative impact on academic achievement, while using computers to solve simulations saw their students math scores increase significantly. Hiebert (1999) raised a similar point. When students over-practice procedures before they understand them, they have more difficulty making sense of them later; however, they can learn new concepts and skills while they are solving problems. In a study that examined relationship between computer use and students science achievement based on data from a standardized assessment, Papanastasiou, Zemblyas, Vrasidas (2003) found it is not the computer use itself that has a positive or negative effect on achievement of students, but the way in which computers are used. Researchers are also making progress on the more complicated task of investigating the impact of technology use on higher order thinking skills as measured through means other than standardized tests. They are examining students ability to understand complex phenomena, analyze and synthesize multiple sources of information, and build representations of their own knowledge. At the same time, some researchers are calling for newer standardized assessments that emphasize the ability to access, interpret, and synthesize information. Research indicates that computer technology can help support learning and is especially useful in developing the higher-order skills of critical thinking, analysis, and scientific inquiry by engaging students in authentic, complex tasks within collaborative learning contexts (Roschelle, Pea, Hoadley, Gordin Means, 2000; Means, et. al. , 1993). While research linking technology integration, inquiry-based teaching, and emphasis on problem solving with student achievement is emergent, some research exists that suggests a connection. In a 2001 study of Enhancing Missouris Instructional Networked Teaching Strategies (eMints) program, a statewide technology integration initiative, eMINTS students scored consistently higher on the Missouri Assessment Program (MAP) than non-eMINTS students, including eMINTS students classified as having special needs. The higher MAP results were found to be associated with the instructional practices (Evaluation Team Policy Brief, 2002). The eMINTS program provides teachers with professional development to help integrate technology so that they can use inquiry-based teaching and emphasize critical-thinking and problem-solving skills. The program has since expanded to not only Missouri schools and districts but also other states as well. Currently, 232 Missouri districts, 10 Utah districts, 56 Maine districts, 2 Nevada districts, and 1 Illinois district, representing 1,000 classrooms and 22,500 students now take advantage of the eMINTS program offerings. Test results continue to show that, on most state tests, students enrolled in eMINTS classrooms scored higher than students enrolled in non-eMINTS classrooms and that low-income and special education students in eMINTS classes generally score higher than their non-eMINTS peers (eMINTS, 2005). Results from other studies (Perez-Prado and Thirunarayanan 2002; Cooper 2001; Smith, Ferguson and Caris 2001) also suggest that students can benefit from technology-enhanced collaborative learning methods and the interactive learning process. Roschelle, Pea, Hoadley, Gordin, Means (2000) identify four fundamental characteristics of how technology can enhance both what and how children learn in the classroom: (1) active engagement, (2) participation in groups, (3) frequent interaction and feedback, and (4) connections to real-world contexts. They also indicate that use of technology is more effective as a learning tool when embedded in a broader education reform movement that includes improvements in teacher training, curriculum, student assessment, and a schools capacity for change. Back To Top FACTORS TO CONSIDER Inclusion: Reaching All Students A major concern of many educators with regard to educational technology is its potential to exclude those who may not have access to it, or may not be able to use it. Regardless of what research may indicate concerning positive effects of technology on student learning, technology will be of limited use in achieving the goals of NCLB if is not available to all students. Students at Risk. Research demonstrates that the challenge of helping teachers and students achieve ICT literacy, and the challenge of establishing frameworks for assessing their skills, is most acute in schools serving low-socioeconomic, minority students (Becker, 2000b; Becker Ravitz, 1997). While public debate about the digital divide centers on basic technology access, the gap is even wider when measured by the pedagogical practices associated with technology use in different schools. More than half (53%) of teachers in public schools who have computers use them or the Internet for instruction during class. But in schools whose students are from higher-income families, 61 percent of teachers with computers use them in class compared to 50 percent of those teaching in schools with lower-income students (Lenhart, Rainie Lewis, 2001). And as wired as many young people are, the same study that found 87 percent of young people use the Internet also found that 3 million remain without Internet access. Many of those without access come from financially disadvantaged backgrounds, and a disproportionate number are black (eSchool News, 2005a). Schools serving students living in poverty tend to use technology for more traditional memory-based and remedial activities, while schools serving wealthier communities are more likely to focus on communication and expression. A nationwide study examining the relationship between socioeconomic status and teaching practices around technology found that teaching in low-SES schools correlated most strongly with using technology for reinforcement of skills and remediation of skills, while teaching in higher-SES schools correlated most with analyzing information and presenting information to an audience (Becker, 2000b). At the same time, although less studied than other outcomes, demonstration efforts and anecdotal evidence suggest that teaching ICT literacy skills (specifically those related to multimedia literacy in Web, publishing and video production) can improve the economic prospects of at-risk youth by giving them marketable skills (Lau Lazarus, 2002). Back To Top Language Learners. Likewise, in teaching language learners, using technology has distinct advantages that relate not only to language education but preparing students for todays information society. Computer technologies and the Internet are powerful tools for assisting language teaching because Web technology is a part of todays social fabric, meaning language learners can now learn thorough writing e-mail and conducting online research (Wang, 2005). In Oregon secondary schools, wirelessly networked note taking is used to support Hispanic migrant students who speak English as a second language (ESL). As part of the InTime project, ESL students attend regular high school classes along with a bilingual, note-taking/mentoring partner. Note takers and students communicate using a collaborative word processing and graphics package on wirelessly networked laptop computers. During class presentations, ESL students can read their note takers translation of key words, allowing students to build both English and Spanish literacy skills as they advance academically (Knox and Anderson-Inman, 2001). Students with Disabilities. For several decades, the American educational system has taken a narrow view of special education, treating it as a mini-school within the school where teachers, largely cut off from the rest of the staff, faced a group of students with an incredibly wide range of abilities and disabilities and made the best of it. Today, that view of special education is giving way to a broader, more philosophical approach—an approach designed to weave inclusive practices into t he fabric of the whole-school environment. (MOSAIC, 2000a). The shift in recognizing the needs of students with disabilities in relationship to their general education peers began with the 1997 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Before the law, many children with disabilities who were not in schools at all because schools had chosen to exclude them (MOSAIC, 2000b). IDEA clearly established that all students with disabilities have the right to public education. More than 6 million children with disabilities ages 3 to 21 years old are served in federally supported programs (Snyder Tan, 2005). However, students with disabilities frequently experience insufficient access to and success in the general education curriculum. This is especially true for adolescent learners, even non-disabled students, who must cope with the emphasis on learning from text (Biancarosa Snow, 2004; Kamil, 2003). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) takes advantage of the opportunity brought by rapidly evolving communication technologies to create flexible teaching methods and curriculum materials that can reach diverse learners and improve student access to the general education curriculum (Rose Meyer, 2002). UDL assumes that students bring different needs and skills to the task of learning, and the learning environment should be designed to both accommodate, and make use of, these differences (Bowe 2000; Rose Meyer, 2002). To promote improved access to the general curriculum for all learners, including learners with disabilities, Rose Meyer (2002) have identified three key principles or guidelines for UDL: Presenting information in multiple formats and multiple media. Offering students with multiple ways to express and demonstrate what they have learned. Providing multiple entry points to engage student interest and motivate learning. For example, printed reading materials pose substantial challenges to the learning of students with disabilities (J. Zorfass: personal communication, October 2005). Technology can assist with such difficulties by enabling a shift from printed text to electronic text, which Anderson-Inman and Reinking (1998) assert can be modified, enhanced, programmed, linked, searched, collapsed, and collaborative. Text styles and font sizes can be modified as needed by readers with visual disabilities; read aloud by a computer-based text-to-speech translators; and integrated with illustrations, videos, and audio. Electronic text affords alternative formats for reading materials that can be customized to match learner needs, can be structured in ways that scaffold the learning process and expand both physical and cognitive access, and can foster new modes of expression through revision and multimedia (J. Zorfass: personal communication, October 2005). It represents one way that technology can support the achievement of students with disabilities. Technology also has a role to play in the testing of students with disabilities. A notable outgrowth of NCLB is the legislations mandatory requirement that states account for individual subgroups, which has further challenged schools and districts to acknowledge students with disabilities (McLaughlin, S Embler, K Nagle, 2004; Nagle, 2005). State academic content and achievement standards now define the goals of education for all students, and most students with disabilities are now expected to reach the same level of proficiency as their non-disabled peers. In order to ensure that disabilities do not prevent students from participating in standardized assessments, students with disabilities are entitled to take these tests in the same way as their peers, with accommodations, or with an alternate assessment (Thompson, Thurlow, Moore, 2003). These accommodations or alternatives must not alter the content standard being measured nor the achievement standard (McLaughlin, Embler Nagle, 2004). While technology can support such accommodations and alternatives, striking a balance between accommodation and standardization across all students testing experiences remains a subject of debate today (Murray, 2005). Back To Top Educational Technology and Data Driven Decision Making The effectiveness of educational technology on student learning depends not only on what outcomes are targeted and how the technology is integrated into instruction, but also on how teachers assess student performance in classrooms and adjust instruction accordingly. Technology offers teachers a broad range of tools to collect and analyze data, and richer sets of student data to guide instructional decisions. NCLB has prompted educators to think much more systematically about educational decision-making and the use of data to inform their decisions about everything from resource allocation to instructional practice. Schools are now expected to monitor their efforts to enable all students to achieve, and administrators and teachers are now expected to be prepared to use data to understand where students are academically and to establish targeted, responsive, and flexible ways to improve this academic standing (Mitchell, Lee, Herman, 2000, p. 2). However, despite encouragement at the policy level, there is growing consensus that schools are not adequately prepared for the task of routinely thinking critically about the relationships between instructional practices and student outcomes (Confrey Makar, 2005; Olsen, 2003; Hammerman Rubin, 2002; Herman Gribbons, 2001; Kearns Harvey, 2000). Recent research conducted by EDCs Center for Children and Technology has found that educators working at different levels of a school system have distinctive intuitive approaches to the process, despite the absence of systematic training in a particular approach to data-driven decision-making. For example, school administrators use high-stakes test data to allocate resources and plan professional development and other kinds of targeted intervention activities by identifying general patterns of performance, class-, grade-, and school-wide strengths and weaknesses. Teachers tend to use multiple sources of data—homework assignments, in-class tests, classroom performances, and experiential information—to inform their thinking about their students strengths and weaknesses (Brunner, Fasca, Heinze, Honey, Light, Mandinach Wexler, 2005; Light, Wexler Heinze, 2004; Honey, Brunner, Light, Kim, McDermott, Heinze, Bereiter Mandinach, 2002). While drawing on varied sources of data to form opinions about students competencies is not new behavior for teachers, significant research (Mandinach, Honey, Light, Heinze, Rivas, 2005; Confrey Makar, 2002, 2005; Hammerman, Rubin, 2002, 2003) suggests that teachers examine factors that contribute to individual patterns of behavior and think case-by-case, rather than identify patterns in data at different levels of aggregation, from student-to-student, class-to-class, and year-to-year, and systematically analyze the relationship between student performance and instructional strategies and materials. Data literacy—the ability of instructional leaders and teachers to work individually and collectively to examine outcomes-based achievement data, formative assessment measures of student performance, and students work products, and to develop strategies for improvement based on these data—is now widely recognized as a critical strategy in the academic performance of schools (Fullan, 1999; Haycock, 2001; Johnson, 1996; Love, 2004; Schmoker, 1999; Zalles, 2005). A key concept of data literacy is generating only the data that are needed and making full use of whats collected. The National Research Council (1996) notes that, far too often, more educational data are collected and analyzed than are used to make decisions or take action (p. 90). Those resources become meaningful to educators only when they are transformed into information, and ultimately into usable or actionable knowledge (Mandinach Honey, 2005). Taken as a whole, the emerging research in this area suggests that what is needed is a comprehensive and purposeful approach to the use of data that not only informs the practices of individual teachers, but is supported as an essential and strategic part of school-wide improvement strategies. New professional development programs are now training teachers and school leaders in how to make use of data in systematic and rigorous ways to continuously improve student performance. For example, TERC has created Using Data, a professional development model that introduces teachers to a process through which they learn to frame questions, collect data, formulate hypotheses, draw conclusions, take action, and monitor results (Love, 2002). Preliminary studies have indicated that this model has had an impact on teacher classroom behavior and on their approach to data analysis and interpretation (Love, 2004), and has also improved student learning as indicated by state and formative assessments (Zuman, 2005). Results from external evaluations of the intervention conducted in various locations have shown substantial gains in student performance on state accountability measures in the areas of math and language arts. Technology has a vital role to play in enabling data-driven decision-making. Web-based test data reporting systems provide an interface to the state and city testing results by organizing raw data into information that is aligned with state standards and mobile computing devices, such as handhelds, provide teachers with a platform to administer and analyze the data of classroom-based assessments. For example, according to the 2004 Quality Education Data, 55 percent of the nations public school districts used PDAs or handheld PCs in the 2002-2003 school year with an additional 8 percent expected to purchase them for use during the 2003-2004 school year. The numbers released by Wireless Generation, a for-profit company that designs educational assessment applications for handheld devices, suggests an even greater increase. During the fall of 2005, Wireless estimates that roughly 80,000 teachers, working in 48 states will be using their software to collect and analyze data for up to one million students in pre-K through sixth grade. The company currently has contracts with ten Reading First states, as well as with some of the largest school districts in the nation, including the New York City Board of Education and Chicago Public Schools. While using PDAs to administer assessments and view data are becoming increasingly popular, few studies have examined the effect they have on teacher practice and student achievement (Brunner Honey, 2001; Hupert, Martin, Heinze, Kanaya, Perez, 2004; Sharp Risko, 2003; Sharp, 2004). Studies that have begun to examine this trend suggest that that these tools assist teachers in thinking more substantively about students progress. As a whole, the research indicates that the single most powerful affordance of the technology is its ability to support teachers in using assessments to acquire information about students thinking and learning, and to use the understanding gained to further shape their instructional practice (Brunner Honey, 2001; Hupert et al. , 2004; Sharp Risko, 2003). Such a strategy places assessment squarely in the center of the classroom where it can potentially count the most. Back To Top The Complex Nature of Change Another factor influencing the impact of technology on student achievement is that changes in classroom technologies correlate to changes in other educational factors as well. Originally the determination of student achievement was based on traditional methods of social scientific investigation: it asked whether there was a specific, causal relationship between one thing—technology—and another—student achievement. Because schools are complex social environments, however, it is impossible to change just one thing at a time (Glennan Melmed, 1996; Hawkins, Panush, Spielvogel, 1996; Newman, 1990). If a new technology is introduced into a classroom, other things also change. For example, teachers perceptions of their students capabilities can shift dramatically when technology is integrated into the classroom (Honey, Chang, Light, Moeller, in press). Also, teachers frequently find themselves acting more as coaches and less as lecturers (Henriquez Riconscente, 1998). Another example is that use of technology tends to foster collaboration among students, which in turn may have a positive effect on student achievement (Tinzmann, 1998). Because the technology becomes part of a complex network of changes, its impact cannot be reduced to a simple cause-and-effect model that would provide a definitive answer to how it has improved student achievement. Back To Top IMPLICATIONS These findings have implications for every district and school using or planning to use technology. Research on successfully developing, evaluating, studying, and implementing a wide range of technology-based educational programs suggests that the value of technology for students will not be realized unless attention is paid to several important considerations that support the effective use of technology (ISTE, 2002; Byrom Bingham, 2001; Chang, Henriquez, Honey, Light, Moeller, Ross, 1998; Cradler, 1997; Frederiksen White, 1997; Hawkins, Panush, Spielvogel, 1996; Honey, McMillan, Tsikalas, Light, 1996; National Foundation for the Improvement of Education, 1996; Pea Gomez, 1992). These considerations are: Specific educational goals and a vision of learning through technology Ongoing professional development Structural changes in the school day A robust technical infrastructure and technical support Ongoing evaluation Back To Top 1. Educational Goals and a Vision of Learning Through Technology Before technology is purchased or teachers participate in their first professional development session, the educational goals for students should be determined. What do students need to learn, and how can technology promote those learning goals? To answer these questions, the school can convene a technology planning team comprising administrators, teachers, other instructional staff, technology coordinators, students, parents, and representatives of the community. This team first develops a clear set of goals, expectations, and criteria for student learning based on national and state standards, the student population, and community concerns. Next, it determines the types of technology that will best support efforts to meet those goals. The viewpoints of parents and community members are helpful in presenting a broader perspective of skills that students need to succeed after school. In fact, communitywide involvement in determining the schools technology goals benefits the entire educational process (Byrom Bingham, 2001; Panel on Educational Technology, 1997). Rather than using technology for technologys sake, the planning team ensures that particular educational objectives are achieved more efficiently, in more depth, or with more flexibility through technology. Cuban (cited in Trotter, 1998) states, The obligation is for educators, practitioners, and educational policymakers to think about what they are after. Only with clear goals can educators be intelligent about how much they want to spend for what purpose and under what conditions. If there is a clear understanding of the purpose of and type of technology used, evaluating the impact is easier and more valuable. According to Hawkins, Panush, and Spielvogel (1996) and Byrom Bingham (2001), school districts that successfully integrate technology show a clear and meaningful connection between technology and larger educational goals. Next, the planning team develops a vision of how technology can improve teaching and learning. Without a vision, lasting school improvement is almost impossible (Byrom Bingham, 2001). Team members come to consensus in answering the question How Will You Use Technology to Support Your Vision of Learning? Essential to this vision is an emphasis on meaningful, engaged learning with technology, in which students are actively involved in the learning process. Educational technology is less effective when the learning objectives are unclear and the focus of the technology use is diffuse (Schacter, 1999). The schools vision of learning through technology also emphasizes the importance of all students having equitable access and use of technology—females, special-needs students, minority students, disadvantaged students, students at risk of educational failure, rural and inner-city students. All students need opportunities to use technology in meaningful, authentic tasks that develop higher-order thinking skills. (For further information, refer to the Critical Issue Ensuring Equitable Use of Education Technology. ) Back To Top 2. Professional Development After the educational goals and vision of learning through technology have been determined, it is important to provide professional development to teachers to help them choose the most appropriate technologies and instructional strategies to meet these goals. Students cannot be expected to benefit from technology if their teachers are neither familiar nor comfortable with it. Teachers need to be supported in their efforts to use technology. The primary reason teachers do not use technology in their classrooms is a lack of experience with the technology (Wenglinsky, 1998; Rosen Weil, 1995). Wenglinsky (cited in Archer, 1998) found that teachers who had received professional development with computers during the last five years were more likely to use computers in effective ways than those who had not participated in such training. Yet teacher induction programs too often focus narrowly on helping new teachers survive the initial year (Fulton, Yoon, Lee, 2005). Ongoing professional development is necessary to help teachers learn not only how to use new technology but also how to provide meaningful instruction and activities using technology in the classroom (Ringstaff Kelley, 2002). Teachers must be offered training in using computers, notes Sulla (1999), but their training must go beyond that to the instructional strategies needed to infuse technological skills into the learning process. In successful projects, teachers are provided with ongoing professional development on practical applications of technology. Teachers cannot be expected to learn how to use educational technology in their teaching after a one-time workshop. Teachers need in-depth, sustained assistance not only in the use of the technology but in their efforts to integrate technology into the curriculum (Kanaya Light, 2005). Teachers also need embedded opportunities for professional learning and collaborating with colleagues in order to overcome the barrier of time and teachers daily schedules (The National Council of Staff Development, 2001; Kanaya Light, 2005). Skills training becomes peripheral to alternative forms of ongoing support that addresses a range of issues, including teachers changing practices and curricula, new technologies and other new resources, and changing assessment practices. This time spent ensuring that teachers are using technology to enrich their students learning experiences is an important piece in determining the value of technology to their students. According to Soloway (cited in Archer, 1998), teachers always have been the key to determining the impact of innovations, and this situation also is true of technology. Besides pedagogical support to help students use technology to reach learning goals, teachers also need time to become familiar with available products, software, and online resources. They also need time to discuss technology use with other teachers. Transforming schools into 21st century learning communities means recognizing that teachers must become members of a growing network of shared expertise (Fulton, Yoon, Lee, 2005). Professional collaboration includes communicating with educators in similar situations and others who have experience with technology (Panel on Educational Technology, 1997). This activity can be done in face-to-face meetings or by using technology such as e-mail or videoconferencing. The effects of introducing technology on teacher professionalization include increased collaboration among teachers within a school and increased interaction with external collaborators and resources. Back To Top 3. Structural Changes in the School Day It is important to build time into the daily schedule allowing teachers time to collaborate and to work with their students. Engaged learning through technology is best supported by changes in the structure of the school day, including longer class periods and more allowance for team teaching and interdisciplinary work. For example, when students are working on long-term research projects for which they are making use of online resources (such as artwork, scientific data sets, or historical documents), they may need more than a daily 30- or 40-minute period to find, explore, and synthesize these materials for their research. As schools continue to acquire more technology for student use and as teachers are able to find more ways to incorporate technology into their instruction, the problem will no longer be not enough computers but not enough time (Becker, 1994). Back To Top 4. Technical Infrastructure and Support Increased use of technology in the school requires a robust technical infrastructure and adequate technical support. If teachers are working with a technology infrastructure that realistically cannot support the work they are trying to do, they will become frustrated. School districts have a responsibility to create not only nominal access to computers and electronic networks but access that is robust enough to support the kinds of use that can make a real difference in the classroom. Teachers also must have access to on-site technical support personnel who are responsible for troubleshooting and assistance after the technology and lessons are in place. Back To Top 5. Evaluation Ongoing evaluation of technology applications and student achievement, based on the overall educational goals that were decided on, helps to ensure that he technology is appropriate, adaptable, and useful. Such evaluation also facilitates change if learning goals are not being met. Administrators can acknowledge and recognize incremental improvements in student outcomes as well as changes in teachers curricula and practices. Gradual progress, rather than sudden transformation, is more likely to result in long-term change. Baker (1999) emphasizes that besides being a means to collect, interpret, and document findings, evaluation is a planning tool that should be considered at the beginning of any technology innovation. She adds that the overall focus of evaluation is student learning. Heinecke, Blasi, Milman, and Washington (1999) note that multiple quantitative and qualitative evaluation measures may be necessary to document student learning outcomes. To ensure that evaluation procedures are adequately designed and carried out, administrators and teachers may wish to consult evaluation sources such as An Educators Guide to Evaluating the Use of Technology in Schools and Classrooms. All of these issues are important in using technology to improve student achievement. Educational technology is not, and never will be, transformative on its own. But when decisions are made strategically with these factors in mind, technology can play a critical role in creating new circumstances and opportunities for learning that can be rich and exciting. At its best, technology can facilitate deep exploration and integration of information, high-level thinking, and profound engagement by allowing students to design, explore, experiment, access information, and model complex phenomena, note Goldman, Cole, and Syer (1999). These new circumstances and opportunities—not the technology on its own—can have a direct and meaningful impact on student achievement. When educators use the accumulating knowledge regarding the circumstances under which technology supports the broad definition of student achievement, they will be able to make informed choices about what technologies will best meet the particular needs of specific schools or districts. They also will be able to ensure that teachers, parents, students, and community members nderstand what role technology is playing in a school or district and how its impact is being evaluated. Finally, they will be able to justify the investments made in technology. To help states, school districts, and school personnel plan ways to measure the impact that technology is having on classroom practices and academic achievement, Dirr (2004) in partnership with the Appalachian Technology in Education Consortium and the Mid-Atlantic Regional Technology in Edu cation Consortium, identified the following evaluation strategies: Encourage SEAs and LEAs to set aside 10 percent to 15 percent of funds to evaluate their technology grants. Provide a model comprehensive plan for states and districts to consider as they design their own evaluation plans to include a statement of purpose, identifies clear objectives, demonstrates valid approaches to research design, and specifies appropriate time frames for analysis and reporting. Support efforts to develop shared instruments and sets of common data elements. Develop a database of best practices for technology programs and applications that have shown to support student achievement in scientifically based research studies. Develop a list of highly qualified researchers and evaluators from whom SEAs and LEAs can obtain guidance. Explore the development of validated instruments that could be shared across states. Back To Top ACTION OPTIONS: Administrators, the technology planning team, and teachers can take the following steps to improve student achievement through technology. Administrators and the Planning Team (comprising teacher representatives, technology coordinator, students, parents, and interested community members): Review a range of national and state educational standards for student learning (such as those listed in Developing Educational Standards). Seek out content standards that articulate the goals for students to achieve. Determine key aspects of national and state student learning standards for the school or district to focus on as educational goals. Involve teachers in this process to ensure that their expertise and opinions are considered. Charge cross-disciplinary groups of teachers and technology coordinators with finding new ways that technology can help students to achieve those learning goals. Collaborate to create a technology plan for the school. (Refer to the Critical Issue Developing a School or District Technology Plan. ) Set one-, three-, and five-year goals for improving student learning through technology. Identify specific curricula, practices, skills, attitudes, and policies that can be enhanced through the use of technology to foster significant improvement in the character and quality of student learning. For example, if the district is interested in improving students writing performance, word processing with an emphasis on revision and editing should become a salient part of the curriculum across disciplines. ) Identify classrooms in the district where students are already producing exemplary work using technology; or visit virtual classrooms by viewing CD-ROMs (such as the Captured Wisdom CD-ROM Lib rary produced by the North Central Regional Technology in Education Consortium), videotapes of echnology use in schools (such as the Learning With Technology videotapes), or Internet sites relating to technology integration in content areas (such as lessons using the Amazing Picture Machine and the Handbook of Engaged Learning Projects). Build a database or other resource that allows the school to share these best practices with school staff and the community in general. Be aware of state technology plans, district technology plans, and related policies. Ensure that the school is in compliance. Become familiar with factors that affect the effective use of technology for teaching and learning. Learn about research studies conducted in real school settings that describe how technology use is influenced by teachers experience with technology, adequacy of release time, professional development opportunities, and length of class periods. Ensure that teachers are aware of the value of technology for all students, especially those considered at risk of educational failure. (Refer to the Critical Issue Using Technology to Enhance Engaged Learning for At-Risk Students. ) Ensure that all students have equitable access to effective uses of technology. Develop strategies for addressing access inequities, strategies for addressing type-of-use inequities, and strategies for addressing curriculum inequities. Provide ongoing, extensive, and research-based professional development opportunities and technical support to help teachers use technology to develop meaningful instructional strategies for students. (Refer to the Critical Issues Realizing New Learning for All Students Through Professional Development and Finding Time for Professional Development. ) Ensure that new, research-based approaches to professional development are consistent with the National Staff Development Council (NSDC) standards for staff development. Provide incentives, structures, and time for teachers to participate in highly effective staff development (such as study groups and action research) to help them integrate technology into their teaching and learning. Find ways to make app ropriate structural changes in the school day and class scheduling to support engaged learning with technology. Consider block scheduling as a possibility. Educate parents about new assessment methods that enable teachers and administrators to make judgments about the effectiveness of technology in supporting student learning. Use appropriate evaluation procedures and tools to determine the impact of technology use on student achievement based on the learning goals that were set. Consult evaluation sources such as An Educators Guide to Evaluating the Use of Technology in Schools and Classrooms. Share findings with the community. Teachers: Determine the purpose of using technology in the classroom, as determined by the specified educational goals. Is it used to support inquiry, enhance communication, extend access to resources, guide students to analyze and visualize data, enable product development, or encourage expression of ideas? After the purpose is determined, select the appropriate technology and develop the curricula. Create a plan for evaluating students work and assessing the impact of the technology. Coordinate technology implementation efforts with core learning goals, such as improving students writing skills, reading comprehension, mathematical reasoning, and problem-solving skills. Collaborate with colleagues to design curricula that involve students in meaningful learning activities in which technology is used for research, data analysis, synthesis, and communication. Promote the use of learning circles, which offer opportunities for students to exchange ideas with other students, teachers, and professionals across the world. Encourage students to broaden their horizons with technology by means of global connections, electronic visualization, electronic field trips, and online research and publishing. Ensure that students have equitable access to various technologies (such as presentation software, video production, Web page production, word processing, modeling software, and desktop publishing software) to produce projects that demonstrate what they have learned in particular areas of the curriculum. Encourage students to collaborate on projects and to use peer assessment to critique each others work. In addition to standardized tests, use alternative assessment strategies that are based on students performance of authentic tasks. One strategy is to help students develop electronic portfolios of their work to be used for assessment purposes. Ensure that technology-rich student products can be evaluated directly in relation to the goals for student outcomes, rather than according to students level of skill with the technology. Create opportunities for students to share their work publiclythrough performances, public service, open houses, science fairs, and videos. Use these occasions to inform parents and community members of the kinds of learning outcomes the school is providing for students. Learn how various technologies are used today in the world of work, and help students see the value of technology applications. (Pertinent online information can be found in the 1998-99 Occupational Outlook Handbook and the Bureau of Labor Statistics Career Information. ) Participate in professional development activities to gain experience with various types of educational technology and learn how to integrate this technology into the curriculum. Use technology (such as an e-mail list) to connect with other teachers outside the school or district and compare successful strategies for teaching with technology.